Journal Articles

J41 Croteau, E., & Heffernan, N. (2026). Seeing Is Solving: MLLMs, Reasoning, and Refusal in Visual Math. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 18(1), 244-285. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19420820 https://jedm.educationaldatamining.org/index.php/JEDM/article/view/1088 

J40 Lim, W.-C., Heffernan, N., Sales, A. (2025). Evaluating the Effects of Assignment Report Usage on Student Outcomes in an Intelligent Tutoring System: A Randomized-Encouragement Design. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 17 (1), 248-275. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15366697 

J39 Lu, X., Yang, Q., Wei, J., & Heffernan, N. T. (2025, October). From belief to evidence: Simpler immediate feedback improves language learning and confidence in semi-open-ended questions. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 10, p. 1654809). Frontiers Media SA. 

J38 Zhang, F., Li, C., Henkel, O., Xing, W., Baral, S., Heffernan, N., & Li, H. (2024). Math-LLMs: AI Cyberinfrastructure with Pre-trained Transformers for Math Education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-024-00416-y  

J37 Vanacore, K. P., Gurung, A., Sales, A., & Heffernan, N. (2024). Effect of Gamification on Gamers: Evaluating Interventions for Students Who Game the System: Evaluating Interventions for Students Who Gaming the System. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 16(1), 112–140. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11549799

J36 Cheng, L., Croteau, E., Baral, S., Heffernan, C., & Heffernan, N. (2024). Facilitating Student Learning With a Chatbot in an Online Math Learning Platform. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 0(0). Author's Copy https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331241226592 

J35 Lu, X., Wang, W., Motz, B. A., Ye, W., & Heffernan, N. T. (2023). Immediate text-based feedback timing on foreign language online assignments: How immediate should immediate feedback be? Computers and Education Open, 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100148. Author copy

J34 Sales, A.C., Gagnon-Bartsch, J.A., Prihar, E.B., & Heffernan, N.T. (2023). Using Auxiliary Data to Boost Precision in the Analysis of A/B Tests on an Online Educational Platform: New Data and New Results. Journal of Educational Data Mining. Volume 15, No 2, 2023 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8016854  

J33 Gagnon-Bartsch, J. A., Sales, A.C.,*, Wu, E.,  Botelho,  A. F.,  Erickson,  J. A., Miratrix,  L. W., & Heffernan, N. T. (Accepted 2023). Precise unbiased estimation in randomized experiments using auxiliary observational data. Journal of Casual Inference. Vol 11, #1. https://doi.org/10.1515/jci-2022-0011 https://arxiv.org/abs/2105.03529 

J32 Huang, W., Labille, K., Wu, X., Lee, D. & Heffernan, N. (2022). Achieving User-Side Fairness in Contextual Bandits. Human-Centric Intelligent Systems. Springer.  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44230-022-00008-w 

J31 Lu, X., Sales, A., & Heffernan, N. T. (2021). Immediate Versus Delayed Feedback on Learning: Do People’s Instincts Really Conflict With Reality?. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 21(16). https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v21i16.4925 

J30 Botelho, A., Baral, S., Erickson, J., Benachamardi, P., & Heffernan, N. (2023). Leveraging natural language processing to support automated assessment and feedback for student open responses in mathematics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12793     

J29 McCarthy, K. S., Crossley, S. A., Meyers, K., Boser, U., Allen, L. K., Chaudhri, V. K., Collins-Thompson, K., D’Mello, S., De Choudhury, M., Garg, K., Goel, A., Gosha, K., Heffernan, N., Hooper, M. A., Hyman, E., Jarratt, D. C., Khalil, D., Kizilcec, R. F., Litman, D., Malatinszky, A., Marks, K., McNamara, D. S., Menko, R., Palermo, C., Porcaro, D., Roscoe, R., Shapiro, S., Khanh-Phoung, T., Trumbore, A. M., White, C., Wong, W., Yang, D., & Zampieri, M. (in press). Toward more effective and equitable learning: Identifying barriers and solutions for the future of online education. Technology, Mind, & Behavior.  

J28 Patikorn, T., Baker, R. S., & Heffernan, N. T. (2020). ASSISTments Longitudinal Data Mining Competition Special Issue: A Preface. JEDM | Journal of Educational Data Mining, 12(2), i-xi. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4008048  This is part of a Special Issue that Heffernan et al organized . The competition web site where 70+ researchers participated is here. 

J27 Lu, X., Ostrow, K., & Heffernan, N. (2020). Save Your Strokes: Chinese Handwriting Practice Makes for Ineffective Use of Instructional Time in Second Language. AERA Open.  Volume 6(2)  https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419890326

J26  Graesser, A. C., Hu, X., Nye, B. D., VanLehn, K.,Kumar, R., Heffernan, C., Heffernan, C., et al. (2018). ElectronixTutor: an intelligent tutoring system with multiple learning resources for electronics. International Journal of STEM Education, 5: 15. 

J25  Kai, S., Almeda, M. V., Baker, R., Heffernan, C., & Heffernan, N. (2018). Decision Tree Modeling of Wheel- Spinning and Productive Persistence in Skill Builders. JEDM | Journal of Educational Data Mining, 10(1), 36-71.  Errata and New version 

J24 McGuire, P., Tu, S., Logue., M., Mason, C., Ostrow, K. (2017). Counterintuitive effects of online feedback in middle school math: results from a randomized controlled trial in ASSISTments. Educational Media International. Taylor Francis. Vol Pages 1-14. (Heffernan was not an author, but he helped these scientists use his platform.)

J23 Inventado, P., Scupelli, P., Ostrow, K., Heffernan, N., Almeda, V., & Slater, (2018). Contextual Factors Affecting Hint Utility, International Journal of STEM Education, 5(1), 13. 

J21 Ostrow, K.S., Heffernan, N.T., & Williams, J.J. (2017). Tomorrow’s EdTech Today: Establishing a Learning Platform as a Collaborative Research Tool for Sound Science. Teachers College Record Volume 119 Number 3, 2017, p. 1-36. ID Number: 21779

J20 Heffernan, N.T., Ostrow, K.S., Kelly, K., Selent, D., Van Inwegen, E.G., Xiong, X., & Williams, J.J. (2016). The Future of Adaptive Learning: Does the Crowd Hold the Key? International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Springer New York. DOI: 10.1007/s40593-016-0094-z 

J19  Heffernan, N. & Heffernan, C. (2014). The ASSISTments Ecosystem: Building a Platform that Brings Scientists and Teachers Together for Minimally Invasive Research on Human Learning and Teaching. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 24 (4), 470-497. DOI 10.1007/s40593-014-0024-x. The Special Issue focused on landmark systems.

J18  Ocumpaugh, J., Baker, R., Gowda, S., Heffernan, N., Heffernan, C. (2014). Population validity for Educational Data Mining models: A case study in affect detection. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(3), 487-501. DOI: 10.1111/bjet.12156

J17  Pardos, Z.A., Gowda, S. M., Baker, R. S.J.D., & Heffernan, N. T. (2012). The Sum is Greater than the Parts: Ensembling Models of Student Knowledge in Educational Software. ACM’s Knowledge Discovery and Datamining Explorations, 13(2), 37-44.

J16  Gong, Y, Beck, J. E., Heffernan, N. T. (2011). How to Construct More Accurate Student Models: Comparing and Optimizing Knowledge Tracing and Performance Factor Analysis. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 21, 27-46.

J15  Pardos, Z., Dailey, M. & Heffernan, N. (2011). Learning what works in ITS from non-traditional randomized controlled trial data. The International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 21, 47-63.

J14  Koedinger, K., McLaughlin, E. & Heffernan, N. (2010). A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of an On-line Formative Assessment and Tutoring System. Journal of Educational Computing Research. Baywood Publishing. 4, 489-510 

J13  Baker, R., Goldstein, A., Heffernan, N. (2011). Detecting the Moment of Learning. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 21(1-2), 5-25. (Get the data here)

J12  Broderick, Z., O’Connor, C., Mulcahy, C., Heffernan, N. & Heffernan, C. (2011). Increasing Parent Engagement in Student Learning Using an Intelligent Tutoring System.  Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 22(4), 523-550. Chesapeake, VA: AACE. 

J11 Militello, M., & Heffernan, N. (2009). Which one is "just right"? What educators should know about formative assessment systems. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 4(3), 1-8.

J10  Feng, M., Heffernan, N.T., Heffernan, & C., Mani, M. (2009). Using Mixed-Effects Modeling to Analyze Different Grain-Sized Skill Models. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 2(2), 79-92. Featured Best Article of 8 articles in the edition (Based on PP8 and WP15)

J9 Razzaq, L., Patvarczki, J., Almeida, S.F., Vartak, M., Feng, M., Heffernan, N.T. and Koedinger, K. (2009). The ASSISTment builder: Supporting the Life-cycle of ITS Content Creation. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies Special Issue on Real-World Applications of Intelligent Tutoring Systems. 2(2) 157-166 (Based on YRP5)

J8 Feng, M., Heffernan, N.T., & Koedinger, K.R. (2009). Addressing the assessment challenge in an Intelligent Tutoring System that tutors as it assesses. The Journal of User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction. 19, 243-266. (Based on CP15) Best Paper of the Year (See Award #20 above). Mentioned in National Ed. Tech Plan (See Award #19).

J7  Mendicino, M., Razzaq, L. & Heffernan, N. T. (2009). Improving Learning from Homework Using Intelligent Tutoring Systems. Journal of Research on Technology in Education (JRTE). 41(3), 331-346.

J6  Baker, R., Walonoski, J., Heffernan, T., Roll, I., Corbett, A. & Koedinger, K. (2008). Why students engage in "Gaming the System" behavior in interactive learning environments Journal of Interactive Learning Research (JILR).19(2), 185-224 (Based on CP12 and PP5)

J5  Razzaq, L., Heffernan, N., Feng, M., & Pardos Z. (2007). Developing Fine-Grained Transfer Models in the ASSISTment System. Journal of Technology, Instruction, Cognition, and Learning. 5(3), 289-304.

J4  Feng, M., & Heffernan, N.T. (2007). Towards live informing and automatic analyzing of student learning: Reporting in the Assistment system. Journal of Interactive Learning Research (JILR) 18(2), 207-230. (Based on W12)

J3  Feng, M., & Heffernan, N.T. (2006). Informing teachers live about student learning: Reporting in the Assistment system Technology, Instruction, Cognition, and Learning Journal. 3(1-2), 63. (Based on W12)

J2  Heffernan, N. T., Koedinger, K. & Razzaq, L. (2008). Expanding the model-tracing architecture: A 3rd generation intelligent tutor for Algebra symbolization. The International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 18(2), 153-178 (Builds upon CP8 and CP1-4).

J1  Heffernan, N. T., & Koedinger, K. R. (2002). Results from a Web-Based Tutor for Writing Algebra Expressions for Word-Problems Sciences et Techniques Educatives. 9(1-2), 11-35. (This French language journal has translated our paper into French. My translation of this Journal’s title is "Educational Sciences and Technology.") http://www.inrp.fr/atief/ste/ste-res-vol9.htm (Based on D1)